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Guayaquil Canton

Guayaquil Canton

The canton of Guayaquil is a canton in the center of the Guayas province in western Ecuador. The canton was named after its seat, which is the city of Guayaquil, the most populous city in Ecuador. category:cantons of Guayas
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Cantons of Ecuador

A canton is a tertiary subdivision of Ecuador, below provinces. Cantons are subdivided into parishes (parroquias). The province with more cantons is Guayas (28 cantons). Generally, the provinces in the Amazon basin have fewer cantons than others.

Authorities

In each canton there is a jefe político, chosen by the president, who represents him. There are also a mayor (alcalde) and a municipal council (concejo municipal), chosen by popular vote.
- Ecuador, Cantons of

Ecuador

The Republic of Ecuador is a country in northwestern South America, bounded by Colombia on the north, by Peru on the east and south, and by the Pacific Ocean on the west. The country also includes the Galápagos Islands (Archipelago de Colón) in the Pacific, about 965 km (about 600 mi) west of the mainland. Named after the Spanish word for equator, Ecuador straddles the equator and has an area of 272,045 km² (105,037 mi²). Quito is the country’s capital.

History

Main article: History of Ecuador Advanced indigenous cultures flourished in Ecuador long before the area was conquered by the Inca empire in the 15th century. In 1531, the Spanish conquistadors under Francisco Pizarro arrived and defeated the Inca Emperor Atahualpa and his army during the Battle of Cajamarca in 1532. In subsequent years the Spanish colonists became the new elite. The indigenous population was decimated by disease in the first decades of Spanish rule--a time when the natives also were forced into the "encomienda" labor system for Spanish landlords. In 1563, Quito became the seat of a royal "audiencia" (administrative district) of Spain. After nearly 300 years of Spanish colonization, Quito was a city of about 10,000 inhabitants, and it was there on August 10, 1809, that the first cry for independence was heard. After independence forces defeated the royalist army in 1822, Ecuador joined Simon Bolivar's Republic of Gran Colombia, only to become a separate republic in 1830. The 19th century was marked by instability, with a rapid succession of rulers. The conservative Gabriel Garcia Moreno unified the country in the 1860s with the support of the Roman Catholic Church. In the late 1800s, world demand for cocoa tied the economy to commodity exports and led to migrations from the highlands to the agricultural frontier on the coast. A coastal-based liberal revolution in 1895 under Eloy Alfaro reduced the power of the clergy and opened the way for capitalist development. The end of the cocoa boom produced renewed political instability and a military coup in 1925. The 1930s and 1940s were marked by populist politicians such as five-time President Jose Velasco Ibarra. Recession and popular unrest led to a return to populist politics and domestic military interventions in the 1960s, while foreign companies developed oil resources in the Ecuadorian Amazon. In 1972, a nationalist military regime seized power and used the new oil wealth and foreign borrowing to pay for a program of industrialization, land reform, and subsidies for urban consumers. With the oil boom fading, Ecuador returned to democracy in 1979, but by 1982, the government faced an economic crisis, characterized by high inflation, budget deficits, a falling currency, mounting debt service, and uncompetitive industries. Since its return to democracy, Ecuador has been marked by chronic governmental instability. Many years of continuous mismanagement, starting with the mishandling of the country's debt during the 1970's military regime, have left the country essentially ungovernable. By the mid 90's, the government of Ecuador has been characterized by a weak executive branch that struggles to appease the ruling classes, represented in the legislative and judiciary. The last three democratically elected presidents have failed to finish their terms during that period. Among the most relevant factors in the democratic instability is the emergence of indigenous population as an active constituency. As a group, they were pushed into prominence due to government failures to deliver on promises of land reform, lowering unemployment, and their historical exploitation by the land-holding elite. Their movement, along with the continuing destabilizing efforts by the both the Elite and Leftist movements, have led to a deterioration of the executive office. Today, the notion that presidents are always in danger of being ousted by a majority in congress, a strike movement, or a combination thereof, is widely accepted, leading to deterioration and instability of the Executive Branch. Moreover, massive demonstrations of civil unrest has started a vicious circle in which presidents who are unwilling or unable to make the necessary moves towards popular policies are ousted; with all the economic and governmental fallout that such a drastic change entails. Ecuadorian presidential elections often run under populist principles, such social empowerment, drastically reducing inequality, and the idea of changing the economic and social status quo. However, the public and the other branches of government give the president very little political capital to work with, as it happened when in April 2005 Ecuador's Congress ousted President Lucio Gutiérrez. The Vice-President, Alfredo Palacio, took his place and is expected to be in power until the next scheduled election. Ecuador is home to a number of important artists of the last century, which include Enrique Tabara (b. 1930), Oswaldo Guayasamín (1919-1999), Eduardo Kingman (1913-1998), Aníbal Villacís, Félix Arauz (b. 1935), Camilo Egas, Manuel Rendón Seminario, and Juan Villafuerte (1945-1977).

Politics

Main article: Politics of Ecuador Politics of Ecuador Politics of Ecuador The constitution provides for concurrent 4-year terms of office for the president, vice president, and members of Congress. Presidents may be re-elected after an intervening term, while legislators may be re-elected immediately. The executive branch includes 15 ministries. Provincial governors and councilors, like mayors and aldermen and parish boards, are directly elected. Congress meets throughout the year except for recess in July and December. There are twenty 7-member congressional committees. Justices of the Supreme Court are appointed by the Congress for indefinite terms.

Foreign relations

Ecuador has often placed great emphasis on multilateral approaches to international issues. Ecuador is a member of the United Nations (and most of its specialized agencies) and the Organization of American States (OAS) and also is a member of many regional groups, including the Rio Group, the Latin American Economic System, the Latin American Energy Organization, the Latin American Integration Association, and The Andean Pact.

Provinces

Main article: Provinces of Ecuador Ecuador is divided into twenty two provinces (capitals are in parentheses):

Geography

Provinces of Ecuador Main article: Geography of Ecuador Ecuador has four main geographic regions. These are the Costa (low-lying Pacific coast), the Sierra (mountainous, high-altitude Andean lands), the Oriente (literally, "East"; comprising the Amazonian rainforest areas), and the Galápagos Islands, some 1,000 km west of Ecuador in the Pacific Ocean. Ecuador's capital is Quito and its largest city is Guayaquil.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Ecuador Ecuador has substantial petroleum resources and rich agricultural areas. Because the country exports primary products such as oil, bananas, and shrimp, fluctuations in world market prices can have a substantial domestic impact. Industry is largely oriented to servicing the domestic market. Deteriorating economic performance in 1997-98 culminated in a severe economic and financial crisis in 1999. The crisis was precipitated by a number of external shocks, including the El Niño weather phenomenon in 1997, a sharp drop in global oil prices in 1997-98, and international emerging market instability in 1997-98. These factors highlighted the Government of Ecuador's unsustainable economic policy mix of large fiscal deficits and expansionary money policy and resulted in an 7.3% contraction of GDP, annual year-on-year inflation of 52.2% and a 65% devaluation of the national currency in 1999, which helped precipitate an unprecedented default on external loans later that year. On January 9, 2000, the administration of President Jamil Mahuad announced its intention to adopt the U.S. dollar as the official currency of Ecuador to address the ongoing economic crisis. Subsequent protest led to the removal of Mahuad from office and the elevation of Vice President Gustavo Noboa to the presidency. The adoption of the U.S. dollar as currency, as opposed to pegging a local currency to it, means that the benefits of seigniorage accrue to the U.S. economy whether or not there is any compensation for this. The Noboa government confirmed its commitment to dollarize as the centerpiece of its economic recovery strategy. The government also entered into negotiations with the International Monetary Fund (IMF), culminating in the negotiation of a 12-month stand-by arrangement with the Fund. Additional policy initiatives include efforts to reduce the government's fiscal deficit, implement structural reforms to strengthen the banking system and regain access to private capital markets. Buoyed by high oil prices, the Ecuadorian economy experienced a modest recovery in 2000, with GDP rising 1.9%. However, 70% of the population lives below the poverty line, more than double the rate of 5 years ago. Inflation in 2000 remained high at 96.1%, but the rate of inflation continues to fall. Monthly inflation in February 2001 was 2.9%.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Ecuador Demographics of Ecuador Demographics of Ecuador Demographics of Ecuador Demographics of Ecuador Ecuador's population is ethnically diverse. The largest ethnic groups are the Mestizos (those of mixed Spanish and Amerindian ancestry) and constitute just over sixty five per cent of the current population. Amerindians are second in numbers and account for approximately a quarter of the people, around 25%. Whites are mainly Creoles, unmixed descendants of Spanish colonists, and account for 7% of the Ecuadorian population. A small minority of Afro-Ecuadorians, including Mulattos and Zambos, constitute the remainder. Although Ecuadorians were heavily concentrated in the mountainous central highland region a few decades ago, today's population is divided about equally between that area and the coastal lowlands. Migration toward cities--particularly larger cities--in all regions has increased the urban population to about 55%. Due to an economic crisis in the late 1990s, more than 600,000 Ecuadorians emigrated to the U.S. and Europe from 2000 to 2001. The primary reasons for this were the economic and political upheaval that engulfed the country following Mahuad's ouster. Preferred destinations for emigrants include Spain, the US, and Italy. The tropical forest region to the east of the mountains remains sparsely populated and contains only about 3% of the population. Although the constitution demands that 30% of gross revenue be dedicated to education, the government’s stated goal is to dedicate 11% of the budget. It is estimated that gross domestic product (GDP) spending will reach 4% in 2003. The UN Children's Fund (UNICEF) places adult literacy at 90%, but notes that this rate has been stagnant for more than ten years. The UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) reports that only 87% of the primary school teachers and 72% of high school teachers have received training. The public education system is tuition-free, and attendance is mandatory from ages five to fourteen. However, the Ministry of Education reports that only 10% of five year olds actually have access to daily education and that only 66% of youngsters finish six years of schooling. In rural areas, only 10% of the youngsters go on to high school. Ministry statistics give the mean number of years completed as 6.7. Ecuador has sixty one universities, many of which now offer graduate degrees, although only 18% of the faculty in public universities possess graduate degrees themselves. Public universities have an open admissions policy, but some departments have recently implemented admissions standards. The new Board of Higher Education (CONESUP) is working to promote the introduction of teacher evaluation and a national accreditation system. There are also more than 300 Higher Institutes, offering two to three years of post-secondary vocational or technical training. The Higher Education Reform Act transferred oversight of these poorly regulated institutes from the Ministry of Education to the CONESUP.

Religion

Around 94% of Ecuadorians are Roman Catholic. Much of the population is practicing and attend mass regularly. In the rural parts of Ecuador indigenous beliefs and Christianity have been fused together. Like every Latin American nation, Protestant Evangelism has had massive growth, especially in the rural poor areas, though it has been met by many who are reluctant to convert. Other Christian groups like Jehovah's Witness number over 130,000 members [http://www.adherents.com/adhloc/Wh_89.html], and is growing rapidly. Mormons have also seen increasing numbers.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Ecuador Ecuador's mainstream culture is defined by Ecuador's mestizo majority and, like their ancestry, is a mixture of European and Amerindian influences infused with African elements inherited from slave ancestors. Ecuador's indigenous communities are largely integrated into that mainstream culture to varying degrees, but some may also practise their own autochthonous cultures, particularly the more remote indigenous communities of the Amazon basin. Famous people born in Ecuador include painters Tabara, Oswaldo Guayasamín, Kingman, Arauz, and Villafuerte, poet and statesman José Joaquín de Olmedo, scholar Benjamín Urrutia, tennis player Pancho Segura, and speed-walker and Olympic gold medalist Jefferson Pérez

See also


- Communications in Ecuador
- Ecuadorian-United States relations
- Foreign relations of Ecuador
- History of the Ecuadorian-Peruvian territorial dispute
- List of Ecuadorians
- Military of Ecuador
- Music of Ecuador
- Public holidays in Ecuador
- Reporters without borders world-wide press freedom index 2002: Rank 20 out of 139 countries
- Transportation in Ecuador

External links

Government
- [http://www.presidencia.gov.ec Presidencia de la República], official government site
- [http://www.supertel.gov.ec Superintendence of Telecommunications], Control telecommunications services General information
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ec.html CIA - The World Factbook - Ecuador]
- [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ectoc.html Country Studies - Federal Research Division, Library of Congress - Ecuador] 1989 report
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Ecuador Open Directory Project - Ecuador] directory category
- [http://lanic.utexas.edu/la/ecuador/ LANIC] Ecuador page of the Latin American Network Information Center
- [http://schema-root.org/region/americas/south_america/ecuador/ Schema-root.org: Ecuador ] twenty two Ecuador topics, each with a current news feed Tourism
- [http://www.darwinadventure.com Galapagos Islands] travel guide
- [http://www.galapagosmap.com Galapagos map] map and travel guide
- [http://www.anytravels.com/south_america/ecuador/ Ecuador AnyTravels Overview] travel guide
- [http://www.exploringecuador.com Exploring Ecuador] Ecuador and Galapagos Travel Guide and map center Other
- [http://www.google.com.ec Google Ecuador]
- [http://www.nic.ec/nicec.htm Registro de Dominios .EC del Ecuador], ccTLD Network Information Centre Category:South American countries zh-min-nan:Ecuador ko:에콰도르 ms:Ecuador ja:エクアドル

Guayaquil

:This article is about the city of Guayaquil. For the canton named after this city, see Guayaquil (canton). Guayaquil (canton), 2004)]] Santiago de Guayaquil, or just Guayaquil, is the most populous city in Ecuador, as well as that nation's main sea port. Guayaquil is on the west margin of the Guayas River, which flows into the Gulf of Guayaquil in the Pacific Ocean. Guayaquil is at 2.21°S 79.90°W, about 250 km south-southwest of the capital of Ecuador, Quito. According to the most recent census (2001), its population was 1,985,379. Guayaquil is the capital of the Ecuadorian province of Guayas and the seat of the namesake canton. (In Ecuador, a cantón (canton) is a second-order subnational entity below a first-order province.) Some of Guayaquil's main universities are:
- Universidad de Guayaquil [http://www.ug.edu.ec]
- Universidad Católica de Santiago de Guayaquil [http://www.ucsg.edu.ec]
- Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral [http://www.espol.edu.ec]
- Universidad [Laica] Vicente Rocafuerte [http://www.ulaicavr.edu.ec]
- Universidad [de Especialidades del] Espíritu Santo [http://www.uees.edu.ec] Guayaquil serves as the Metropolitan see to the Roman Catholic province of the Archdiocese of Guayaquil. Her cathedral San Pedro is the motherchurch to the Catholics of the region. The majority of the population of the city identifies itself as belonging to the Catholic Church. Because of the historical Ecuadorian freedom of conscience there are also many religious buildings of most other faiths, especially those involved in missionary work. Guayaquil is also an Anglican Communion see and has a Temple of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. The city is the center of Ecuador's fishing and manufacturing industries. The city's airport, Simón Bolívar International Airport (IATA abbr.: GYE), has undergone renovations in the past years. Famous people from Guayaquil include painter Enrique Tabara, painter Félix Arauz, painter and draftsman Juan Villafuerte, poet José Joaquín de Olmedo, scholar Benjamín Urrutia and tennis player Pancho Segura.

History

Pancho Segura Guayaquil was founded on July 25 (see note below), 1531 with the name Muy Noble y Muy Leal Ciudad de Santiago de Guayaquil by Spanish Conquistador Francisco de Orellana. Even before it was founded by the Spanish, it already existed as a native village. Note - July 25 is the legal holiday in Guayaquil. Historians have not yet reached a consensus about the date of Guayaquil's foundation or founder. The city might have been founded more than once. Another possible founder might be Diego de Almagro. In 1600 Guayaquil had a population of about 2,000 people; by 1700 the city had a population of over 10,000. In 1687, Guayaquil was attacked and looted by English and French pirates under George d'Hout (English) and Picard and Groniet (Frenchmen). Of the more than 260 pirates, 35 died and 46 were wounded; 75 defenders of the city died and more than 100 were wounded. The pirates took local women as concubines. Quito paid the ransom demanded by the pirates with the condition they release the hostages and not burn Guayaquil. In 1709, the English captains Woodes Rogers and Etienne Courtney along with 110 other pirates, looted Guayaquil and demanded ransom; however, they suddenly departed without collecting the ransom after an epidemic of yellow fever broke out. In October 9, 1820, almost without bloodshed, a group of civilians supported by soldiers from the "Granaderos de Reserva", a Peruvian battalion quartered in Guayaquil, overwhelmed the resistance of the Royalist guards and arrested the Spanish authorities. Guayaquil declared independence from Spain. José Joaquín de Olmedo was named "Jefe Civil" of Guayaquil. Peru]] On July 26, 1822, José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar held a famous conference in Guayaquil to plan for the independence of Spanish South America. The city suffered from a major fire in 1896 which destroyed large portions of the city. The city's mayor (alcalde) nowadays is Jaime Nebot , a well-known member of the Ecuadorian political party Partido Social Cristiano, and one of the political rivals of former Ecuadorian president Abdalá Bucaram. Nebot began a campaign of construction projects for the city in the late 1990s to attract tourism. One of the projects was called Malecón 2000 , the renovation of the breakwater (malecón) along the Guayas River with the addition of a boardwalk in 2000. Another project was the creation of the Nuevo Parque Histórico, a park in a housing development area that is called Entre Ríos because it lies between the Guayas and Daule rivers, in a mangrove wetland area. The park cost the city about 7 million dollars. It is a refuge for fauna and a zone of historical-architecture preservation, and has a traditions-and-history exhibition center. The idea of the creation of this park came from Ecuador's central bank in 1982, as part of their "Rescate Arquitectónico" ("Architectural Rescue") program. central bank central bank Most buildings in downtown Guayaquil have a very attractive and utilitarian feature - the soportales. These are colonnades or arcades that provide protection to pedestrians from the Equatorial sun and torrential rains. These are worthy of study and imitation by architects from other parts of the world. Ecuador is known for its very important artists and its place in art history. The country is home to some of the most important artists of the last century which include: Enrique Tabara (b. 1930, Guayaquil), Oswaldo Guayasamín (b. 1919-1999, Quito), Eduardo Kingman (b. 1913-1998, Quito), Juan Villafuerte (b. 1945, Guayaquil; d. 1977, Spain), Félix Arauz (b. 1935, Guayaquil), Aníbal Villacís, Camilo Egas, Humberto More, Theo Constante, Luis Miranda and Manuel Rendón Seminario. Two of the best football teams of the country have been found in Guayaquil, the Barcelona Sporting Club and Club Sport Emelec. The latter is short for "Empresa Electrica de Ecuador" - the team is sponsored by the Electric Power Company.

Guayaquil in modern fiction

Much of the novel "Galapagos" by Kurt Vonnegut is set in Guayaquil. The novel contains one major factual error: Vonnegut claims that Guayaquil is entirely Roman Catholic. Actually, the city's population is mostly Catholic, but also home to a great number of denominations and religions.

See also


- List of urban parishes in Guayaquil

References


- [http://www.guayaquil.gov.ec M.I. Municipalidad de Guayaquil ::] official Web site in Spanish
- http://www.guayaquil.com/
- http://www.visitaguayaquil.com/images/maps/map.jpg, JPEG map of north and central Guayaquil from a secondary Web site of the municipality
- [http://www.inguayaquil.com/ Guayaquil Information ]
- [http://www.visitaguayaquil.com/96.gye Photographs of Guayaquil]
- [http://www.guayaquilhistorico.org.ec/webpages/galeria1.htm Old Photos of Guayaquil]
- [http://www.ecuador365.com/guayaquil1.html Photographs of Guayaquil]
- [http://www.eluniverso.com/especiales/htm/camara.htm Guayaquil Webcam showing the "Puente de la unidad nacional"]
- [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=-2.183691,-79.869919&spn=0.197507,0.240704&t=k Guayaquil at Google Maps] Category:canton seats in Guayas category:coastal cities category:coastal cities of Ecuador category:Guayaquil (canton)
- Category:province capitals in Ecuador category:port cities ja:グアヤキル

Category:Cantons of Guayas

Category:Cantons of Ecuador Category:Guayas (province)

Category:Guayaquil (canton)

Category:Cantons of Guayas

Confucius

ko:공자 ms:Ajaran Konfucius ja:孔子 th:ขงจื๊อ zh:孔子 Confucius (551 av; J-C. - 479 av. J-C.) est le fameux sage-philosophe chinois auquel sont attribués à tort tant de proverbes dits chinois. Né à Qufu dans l’actuelle province du Shandong, il est appelé Kǒngzǐ (孔子) ou Kǒng Fūzǐ (孔夫子) par les Chinois, ce qui signifie « Maître Kong » et qui fut latinisé par les Jésuites en « Confucius ».

Sa vie

Selon la tradition, son père fut un descendant de la dynastie Shang et gouverna la province de Lu 鲁 (dans le sud-est de l’actuelle Shandong). Il épousa en secondes noces, alors qu’il avait 70 ans, une jeune fille de 20 ans. Il mourut alors que Confucius n’avait que trois ans et laissa sa famille dans la pauvreté. Shandong Shandong Dès l’âge de dix-sept ans, grâce à un goût précoce pour les livres et les rites, Confucius serait devenu précepteur. Il se maria à vingt-quatre ans et eut trois enfants (un fils (Kong Li) et deux filles). Pour vivre, il effectuait probablement des tâches administratives pour le chef de province. La légende affirme qu’il aurait rencontré Lao Zi en allant consulter des annales, et qu’il en aurait été si fortement impressionné qu’il n’aurait plus parlé pendant trois jours ou un mois. Après la mort de sa mère en -527, il se mit à enseigner sa connaissance des textes anciens au petit groupe de disciples qui le suivait. Après quelques emplois subalternes à la cour de son prince, il se fait écarter du poste et il part en -496 pour quatorze ans d’errance, à la recherche d’un souverain capable de l’écouter. Puis il rentre définitivement à Lu pour se consacrer à l’enseignement et la compilation de textes anciens, jusqu’à sa mort en -479.

Sa pensée

Après plus de deux millénaires de scolastique, il est difficile de se faire une idée juste de l’enseignement originel de Confucius. Il est pourtant possible de comprendre les enjeux et la teneur de sa pensée en lisant les Entretiens, livre dans lequel on voit le Maître vivre et discuter des problèmes de son temps avec ses disciples. Bien qu’il n’ait jamais développé sa pensée de façon théorique, on peut dessiner à grand traits ce qu’étaient ses principales préoccupations et les solutions qu’il préconisait. Partant du constat qu’il n’est pas possible de vivre avec les oiseaux et les bêtes sauvages, et qu’il faut donc vivre en bonne société avec ses semblables, Confucius tisse un réseau de valeurs dont le but est l’harmonie des relations humaines. En son temps, la Chine était divisée en royaumes indépendants et belliqueux, les luttes pour l’hégémonie rendaient la situation instable et l’ancienne dynastie des Zhou avait perdu le rôle unificateur et pacificateur que lui conférait le mandat du Ciel. Confucius voulait donc restaurer ce mandat du Ciel qui conférait le pouvoir et l’efficacité à l’empereur vertueux. Cependant, bien qu’il affirme ne rien inventer et se contenter de transmettre la sagesse ancienne, Confucius a interprété les anciennes institutions selon ses aspirations et il a semé les graines de ce que certains auteurs appellent l'« humanisme chinois ». Mettant l’homme au centre de ses préoccupations et refusant de parler des esprits ou de la mort, Confucius n’a pas fondé de religion au sens occidental du terme, même si un culte lui a été dédié par la suite. Cherchant à fonder une morale positive, structurée par les « rites » et vivifiée par la « sincérité », mettant l’accent sur l’étude et la rectitude, Confucius représente pour les Chinois d’avant la Révolution l’éducateur par excellence, mais la lecture attentive des Entretiens montre qu’il n’a pas voulu s’ériger en maître à penser, et qu’au contraire il voulait développer chez ses disciples l’esprit critique et la reflexion personnelle : « Je lève un coin du voile, et si l’étudiant ne peut découvrir les trois autres, tant pis pour lui. » Un apport très important et révolutionaire en quelque sorte de Confucius est à chercher dans la notion de « Junzi » (« gentilhomme ») qui, avant lui, dénotait une noblesse de sang et dont il a modifié le sens pour le transformer en noblesse du cœur, un peu comme le mot anglais gentleman. Son enseignement, bien que principalement orienté vers la formation de futurs hommes de pouvoir, était ouvert à tous, et non pas seulement aux fils de princes. On peut faire remonter à cette impulsion de départ la longue tradition des examens impériaux, chargés de pourvoir l’États en hommes intègres et cultivés, que le plus humble paysan pouvait (en théorie) tenter. Bien que cette institution « méritocratique » ait subi différents avatars et distorsions, elle a certainement joué un rôle prépondérant dans la pérennité de la culture chinoise et dans la relative stabilité de l’Empire Céleste pendant deux millénaires. Selon Confucius, la soumission au père et au prince va de soi et garantit la cohésion des familles et du pays, mais elle s’accompagne d’un devoir de (respectueuses) remontrances si le père ou le prince vont dans la mauvaise direction. De très nombreux lettrés chinois, se réclamant à juste titre de l’enseignement de leur Maître, ont péri ou été bannis pour avoir osé critiquer l’empereur quand celui-ci, sous l’emprise d’une clique du harem ou de prêtres taoïstes, ne prenait plus soin de son peuple et laissait le pays sombrer dans la famine ou la guerre civile.

Sa postérité

La postérité de Confucius en Chine et en Extrême-Orient ne saurait être sous-évaluée. Ses commentateurs et ses continuateurs proches comme Mencius et Xun Zi ont formé un corps de doctrine, appelé Confucianisme, qui a été choisi comme philosophie d’État en Chine pendant la dynastie Han. Jusqu’à la fin de l’Empire en 1911, le système des examens basé sur le corpus confucéen est resté en vigueur. Certains analystes chinois ou occidentaux pensent que l’influence du Confucianisme est toujours prépondérante à l’époque actuelle, et certains pays comme la Corée du Sud (cf. art. I I) ou Singapour continuent de se réclamer de cette doctrine politique. Cette continuité apparente du Confucianisme en Chine ne doit cependant pas cacher les constants renouvellements, suivis de retours aux sources ou d’éclipses temporaires, qui ont animé l’histoire de la pensée chinoise. Ainsi le renouveau du Confucianisme instauré par Zhu Xi pendant la dynastie Song, après une relative mise en retrait durant la dynastie des Tang, a intégré les apports anciens de la pensée taoïste et les apports plus récents du Bouddhisme en une orthodoxie qui est restée relativement incontestée depuis lors, et il a fallu attendre la fondation de la République de Chine pour que soit aboli l’enseignement des Quatre Livres et des Cinq Classiques confucéens : Les Quatre Livres (四書 Sì shū) sont
- La Grande Étude, (大學 Dà Xué).
- L’Invariable Milieu (中庸 Zhōng Yóng).
- Les Entretiens de Confucius (論語 Lùn Yǔ).
- Le Mencius (孟子 Mèng Zǐ). Mencius Les Cinq Classiques (五經 Wǔ jīng) sont
- Le Canon des Poèmes (詩經 Shī Jīng).
- Le Canon de l'Histoire (書經 Shū Jīng).
- Le Livre des Mutations ou Yi King (易經 Yì Jīng).
- Le Livre des Rites (禮記 Lǐ Jì).
- Les Annales des Printemps et des Automnes (春秋 Chūn Qiū, alias 麟經 Lín Jīng).
- Un sixième classique a été perdu : Le Canon de la Musique (樂經).

Son enseignement

Il est dispensé dans des instituts Confucius. '

Liens externes


- [http://www.onelittleangel.com/sagesse/citations/confucius.asp Citations et portraits de Confucius].
- [http://www.tianli-a-taiwan.fr/003.htm Photos de la cérémonie pour l'anniversaire de Confucius - Temple de Taipei]
- [http://afpc.asso.fr/wengu La base de textes Wengu], avec les Entretiens de Confucius, le Livre des Mutations et le Canon des Poèmes en chinois traditionnel, en anglais et en français.
- [http://www.alliancespirite.org/dossier-7.html Dossier sur Confucius]. Catégorie:Philosophe chinois Confucius Confucius'

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